How old is madagascar copal

From Tanzania coasts to Indian markets. Known for hundreds of years, the Madagascar copal crossed the trade routes from Tanzania to China through the Indian Ocean and the Indian markets. Sold as incense at first, it became pricey due to its high value to make varnish.

More recently, it was used as disinfectant -burnt in Madagascar houses- and it was sold to scientists and tourists for its high content of arthropods inside.

This ancient resin which was not completely fossilized comes from Hymenaea verrucosa trees, a fabacean that grows in the eastern coast of Madagascar, one of the most threatened and fragile ecosystems in the world.

Wrong dating for an ancient resin. According to the study, the scientific community studied the biological remains inside the copal, named bioinclusions , and dated these findings from a few tens to millions of years. However, the origin of the studied material was never found -it is not cited in any study-, and the exact age of the studied pieces was never proved. Rather, the scientists assume that the insect species were captured and preserved in resin have an age of only a few hundred years.

More from Earth Sciences. Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page.

For general inquiries, please use our contact form. For general feedback, use the public comments section below please adhere to guidelines. Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy. This site uses cookies to assist with navigation, analyse your use of our services, collect data for ads personalisation and provide content from third parties.

By using our site, you acknowledge that you have read and understand our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. Home Other Sciences Archaeology. May 19, Recent resin formation on Hymenaea trees in Madagascar. Explore further. DOI: This document is subject to copyright.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only. In any case, this gap can cover, in part, the origin of the historical differentiation between amber and copal, provides a convenient circumstance to define these terms, and justifies the amber-cut-off in the Pleistocene.

The diverse potential causes of them, surely not only main episodes of change in the global temperature, constitute an important topic of study, but are beyond the scope of the present research. Copal and amber are organic materials in which a continuous polymerization of organic hydrocarbon molecules changes the resin into amber However, hitherto there has not been a technique using the loss of volatile compounds as an indicator of age for fossil or sub-fossil resins, this is probably because of the complexity of these compounds 14 and the diversity of taphonomic processes, including the geological context fossil diagenesis.

The impact of thermal alteration on natural resins was established based on terpenoid condensation parameters, which can be used to define the type of amber deposits 67 , 68 , 69 , However, thermal analysis only allows for a relative differentiation between ambers and less ancient resins 71 , instead of an absolute age.

Copal and amber can also be differentiated by FTIR spectroscopy by observing precise exocyclic methylene bands In the case of ambers these bands are weak or absent Thus, the diagenetic alteration can easily be used to differentiate amber from young resin but not to distinguish clear definitions of copal and resin, or to delimit an absolute age for amber.

Furthermore, some resins have the property of polymerizing quite quickly, e. Recently, Stach et al. With this information, they argued an older age for Malagasy copal than that for the Colombian and Tanzanian copals.

Hitherto, only 14 C can date the absolute age of Defaunation resin, and Holocene and Pleistocene copals not older than 50, years. The oldest date that can be reliably measured by 14 C dating is around 50, years, although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analyses of older samples.

In the literature, and in the results of the present work, the youngest resin piece dated was about 60 years BP. The oldest copal with bioinclusions reached about 36, years BP 40 , and a piece without bioinclusions was measured at about 41, years BP see the Supplementary Table S1. Thus, our results highlight the possibility to use radiocarbon dating for the study of bioinclusions in Pleistocene and Holocene copals or in Defaunation resin.

Pleistocene and Holocene copals and Defaunation resin provide access to biotas that are otherwise challenging to capture in the fossil record Fig. The fauna mainly arthropods and flora preserved in resin and copal allow for studies on the composition and change of particular biotas in threatened terrestrial ecosystems, particularly those today experiencing increased biodiversity losses.

For example, the ants in Colombian copal were studied by DuBois and LaPolla 75 , unfortunately without first analysing the age of the studied material. However, as a principal result, these authors concluded that this fauna clearly represents a picture of the ant fauna prior to intense human transformation in South America.

This kind of result is important to be re-evaluated, and including taphonomic studies 6 , in order to consider bias in the compared faunas. However, regardless of age, Pleistocene and Holocene copals and Defaunation resin provide access to biotas that lived at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution or under pre-industrial conditions Fig.

Bioinclusions in Defaunation resin and Holocene copal from different places. A—E Defaunation resin from trees of Hymenaea verrucosa , Madagascar. A swarm of non-biting midges Diptera: Chironomidae. C fungus gnat Diptera: Sciaridae that laid eggs during its death. D lizard body portion. F—G Holocene copal from H. F stingless bee Hymenoptera: Apidae. G flat bug Hemiptera: Aradidae.

H Defaunation resin ca. I—J Holocene copal from trees of Hymenaea courbaril , Colombia. J termite Isoptera nest. L Defaunation resin most probably from trees of A. Minimum and maximum values given to the different copals tested by radiocarbon analysis 14 C. Not the whole time span is covered by 14 C results, see the Supplementary Table S1. The term amber, and also when including a general indication of its age—e. By contrast, the term copal has been used ambiguously, mainly because the age is not properly investigated and because the different concepts for copal and resin that have been established often do not take into account the geologic time scale, the deforestation and defaunation within the Anthropocene in which the sixth extinction is now occurring 56 , 76 , 77 , and the relevance of the age span for faunal studies.

Accordingly, the term copal can be used in a manner like that is done for amber, i. This is especially important for pieces of, for example, Colombian and Dominican copals which contain bioinclusions and that are in the age limit of the Holocene 7 , and for those pieces that were previously dated from the Pleistocene or the Holocene before AD 40 , 41 , Furthermore, this terminology will help to differentiate resin occurrences of different ages from the same geographical region Defaunation resin vs Holocene copal, see the Supplementary Table S1 , Fig.

The Quaternary is divided into two epochs, Pleistocene and Holocene. The Pleistocene ranges from 2. The recently proposed, but as-of-yet unratified, Anthropocene is that span of time when humans dominated and globally altered most natural processes.

Proposals for the beginning of the Anthropocene range from the Megafauna extinction 50, years ago to as recent as AD or AD with the rise of nuclear weapon detonations and persistent industrial chemical products 79 , However, it remains an unofficial geological unit.

Neither the ICS nor the International Union of Geological Sciences IUGS have officially approved the Anthropocene as a recognized subdivision of geologic time and how it should be demarcated remains a matter of discussion 81 , 82 , 83 , On this basis, Defaunation resin was produced within the Anthropocene in a different time relative to the remainder of the Holocene. Accordingly, resin produced during this timeframe must be distinguished, not in a geological context, but in the context of the dramatic alteration of Recent terrestrial ecosystems.

One of the proposals for the beginning of the Anthropocene considers changes in the eighteenth century such as rates of vertebrate extinctions caused by human activities, such as the spread of agricultural development, deforestation, the Columbian Exchange of Old Word and New World species, and the Industrial Revolution The year AD has also been proposed as a starting point for the Anthropocene 79 , coinciding with the biotic change showed by Ceballos et al.

Although our other terms are based on epochal names, given the on-going debate surrounding the Anthropocene and that it remains unratified, we believe the starting point and terminology suggested here is both useful and uncontroversial. The Anthropocene can be differentiated clearly from the Holocene, with human activity as the causative agent 81 , 85 , 86 , Furthermore, bioinclusions in copals and resins represent an unbiased sample of organisms, with respect to human-disturbed habitats or human sampling, that lived in close relation with the resin-producing tree 6 , and consistently from understudied ecosystems such as lowland forests.

In contrast, most entomological collections and sampling protocols are traditionally focused on one group of organisms, representing the taxonomic research interests of the curators and investigators involved.

There are, however, notable exceptions where sampling is done more generally to gather a broader ecological perspective on a given area, but these are the minority across the vast entomological research collections of the world.

With the aforementioned in mind, we propose here a new terminology. The use of these terms: 1 will clarify and allow studies of organisms included in resin, and copal, the importance they deserve as an archive of historical information, 2 will highlight the need for 14 C analysis of each resin and copal piece studied having bioinclusions, 3 will contribute to the study of the arthropod fauna in countries with a top global conservation priority for their high levels of endemism and threat, such as Madagascar, East Africa, and Colombia 89 , 90 , With the establishment of the LABG 12—0.

The LABG can show the age span in which copal and amber with bioinclusions can be found, and the time span from which such bioinclusions can reveal something about the biodiversity at the time the resin was exuded. Hitherto, only the amber from the Indo-Australian Archipelago has been presumed to date from the Miocene to the Pleistocene; however only a few bioinclusions have been found and these are mostly from the middle Miocene.

One hypothesis is that probably the environmental conditions during the late Miocene and Pleistocene did not promote the production of resin in sufficiently large amounts to produce amber or copal deposits rich in bioinclusions. Resin production appears to have decreased considerably, at least not to promote the formation of this type of geological deposits in the late Miocene.

This is related to the increase in aridity and in temperature gradients globally, which promoted important changes in terrestrial ecosystems These changes are the consequence of an atmospheric CO 2 drop 93 , 94 , Furthermore, the Pliocene, Pleistocene, and some periods during the Holocene are characterized by persistent succession of glacial-interglacial cycles 58 , 59 , During these important periods of global ecological changes, tropical forests were dynamically shifting in position and the extent of their areas of coverage 97 , and probably did not form large amber or copal deposits as a consequence.

According to Novick et al. However, aside from insect attacks, disease, traumatic wounding from fires and storms, tree architecture, and local soil conditions are also significant factors for the production of resin emissions or for its preservation 8 , 99 , Thus, more research focused on this topic is needed to better understand the abiotic and biotic processes that condition the mass exudation of resin and its fossilization.

However, that age for this amber is highly debated owing to its importance for the palaeobiogeography of the Caribbean fauna and for molecular clock calibrations; additional geological studies must be done. Amber Gaps and Amber Bioinclusions Gaps in the history of resin production from the Triassic to the Miocene are not rare In the future, Mesozoic Amber Bioinclusions Gaps could be defined, e.

The new definitions are of long-term use, since the Pleistocene and Holocene are well established as geological epochs. Defaunation resin falls within the informal Anthropocene Epoch noting that its definition, if ratified, could change , and is established as starting at AD with the Industrial Revolution.

Thus, the focus here is to establish a term that permits the study of organisms included in copal or in resin in a geographical and historical context that allows for a better understanding of biodiversity loss in tropical environments. Because the term copal is widely used in combined names indicating the geographical origin of this substance, e.

However, in technical studies it must be accompanied with both its age and geographic provenience, e. We standardize here definitions for future studies using modern and fossil taxa that have equal fossilization potential. We are losing biodiversity everywhere, principally in tropical environments such as the lowland forests in those countries where copious resin production occurs. In this context, the discussion and definition of old and new terms for ancient-Recent resins have the goal of bringing a more accurate framework for the research of living and extinct species preserved as bioinclusions in resin.

Furthermore, the definition of Amber Gaps, together with investigation on the causes of resin production 99 , , , and on preservation of bioinclusions e. Results are reported in conventional radiocarbon age BP , calibrated radiocarbon age cal.

BP where "present" is defined as AD, and in calibrated calendar year cal. Samples with plant macroremains were treated with alkali and acid washes in order to remove humic acid and carbonate contamination. Four samples from Madagascar, but without precise location, were dated by Prof. Other 14 C data of different samples taken from the literature are presented in the Supplementary Table S1.

Catalogue number and repository of the Defaunation resin and Holocene and Pleistocene copal pieces in Fig. Photographs Fig. Photographs and Z-stacks images of Fig. Figures 1 and 2 were produced using Adobe Photoshop CS2, version 9. Figure 4 was produced using Adobe Photoshop software CS6, version; Grimaldi, D. Amber: Window to the Past Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Schmidt, A. Arthropods in amber from the Triassic Period. USA 37 , — Google Scholar. A new fossil orchid bee in Colombian copal Hymenoptera: Apidae.

Article Google Scholar. Entrapment bias of arthropods in Miocene amber revealed by trapping experiments in a tropical forest in Chiapas, Mexico. Arthropods in modern resins reveal if amber accurately recorded forest arthropod communities. USA 26 , — Penney, D. Tappert, R. Stable carbon isotopes of C3 plant resins and ambers record changes in atmospheric oxygen since the Triassic. Acta , — Dal Corso, J. Evaluating the use of amber in palaeoatmospheric reconstructions: The carbon-isotope variability of modern and Cretaceous conifer resins.

Bouju, V. A review of amber and copal occurrences in Africa and their paleontological significance. Langenheim, J. Botanical origin of resin objects from aboriginal Costa Rica. McCoy, V. The chemistry of American and African amber, copal, and resin from the genus Hymenaea. Kaal, J. Grimalt, J. The molecular composition of ambers. Wolfe, A. A new proposal concerning the botanical origin of Baltic amber. B , — Shen, Z. Amber identification using micro-Raman spectroscopy.

Asian J. CAS Google Scholar. Winkler, W. Raman spectroscopic approach to the maturation process of fossil resins. Raman Spectrosc. Anderson, K. The nature and fate of natural resins in the geosphere—VII. A radiocarbon 14C age scale for description of immature natural resins: an invitation to scientific debate. Gigliarelli, G. Chemical composition and biological activities of fragrant Mexican copal Bursera spp.

Molecules 20 12 , — Poinar, J. Hymenaea protera sp. Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae from Dominican amber has African affinities. Experientia 47 10 , — Hymenaea mexicana sp. Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae from Mexican amber indicates Old World connections. Perrichot, V. The age and paleobiota of Ethiopian amber revisited. Amber inclusions from New Zealand.

Gondwana Res. Stilwell, J. Amber from the Triassic to Paleogene of Australia and New Zealand as exceptional preservation of poorly known terrestrial ecosystems.